Plus Egypt

Egypt, a country with one of the longest and most influential histories in the world, has been a center of civilization for thousands of years. Situated in the northeastern corner of Africa, Egypt is famed for its ancient wonders like the Pyramids of Giza and the Sphinx, its rich culture, and its pivotal role in geopolitics, especially as a bridge between Africa, the Middle East, and Europe.

Geography

Location and Borders

Egypt is located in the northeastern corner of Africa, with the Sinai Peninsula stretching into Asia. Its strategic position at the crossroads of Africa, the Middle East, and Europe makes it a key player in global trade and politics.

  • Latitude/Longitude: Egypt extends between approximately 22°N to 32°N latitude and from 25°E to 35°E longitude.
  • Borders: Egypt shares borders with Libya to the west, Sudan to the south, and Israel and the Gaza Strip to the northeast. To the north, it is bordered by the Mediterranean Sea, and to the east, by the Red Sea.

Size and Population

Egypt covers an area of approximately 1 million square kilometers (386,662 square miles), making it the 30th-largest country in the world. As of 2023, Egypt’s population is over 106 million, making it the third most populous country in Africa, after Nigeria and Ethiopia.

Major Cities

  • Cairo: The capital and largest city of Egypt, Cairo is the political, cultural, and economic hub of the country. It is also one of the largest cities in Africa and the Middle East.
  • Alexandria: Located on the Mediterranean coast, Alexandria is Egypt’s second-largest city and a major port, known for its rich history dating back to its founding by Alexander the Great.
  • Giza: A city near Cairo, Giza is home to the Great Pyramids and the Sphinx, some of the most famous archaeological sites in the world.
  • Luxor: Known for its ancient temples and tombs, Luxor is often referred to as the “world’s greatest open-air museum.”
  • Aswan: Located in southern Egypt, Aswan is an important city on the Nile River, known for its historical significance and proximity to the Aswan High Dam.

Topography

Egypt’s landscape is dominated by the Nile River, which runs from south to north, supporting agriculture and life in a mostly arid desert country.

Key Features

  • Nile River: The Nile is the lifeblood of Egypt, providing fertile land for agriculture in a desert-dominated landscape. It flows for over 1,500 kilometers (932 miles) through Egypt, from the Sudanese border to the Mediterranean Sea.
  • Western Desert: Also known as the Libyan Desert, this vast desert forms part of the Sahara and covers much of western Egypt. It includes large sand dunes, oases, and plateaus.
  • Eastern Desert: The rugged Eastern Desert lies between the Nile River and the Red Sea, featuring mountains, wadis (dry riverbeds), and valuable mineral resources.
  • Sinai Peninsula: The triangular Sinai Peninsula is located in Asia and is known for its mountainous terrain, including Mount Sinai, and its role as a historical crossroads between Africa and Asia.
  • Nile Delta: The Nile Delta is one of the most fertile regions in the country, where the river fans out and flows into the Mediterranean Sea. It is densely populated and a key agricultural area.

Climate

Egypt has a predominantly desert climate, characterized by hot, dry summers and mild winters. However, the Nile Valley and the Mediterranean coast have slightly different climate zones.

Climate Zones

  • Desert Climate: The vast majority of Egypt experiences a desert climate with extremely high temperatures during the summer months and cooler, more temperate winters.
  • Mediterranean Climate: Along the northern coast, particularly in Alexandria, the climate is more temperate, with mild, rainy winters and hot, dry summers.
  • Nile Valley: The climate in the Nile Valley, including Cairo and Luxor, is slightly less extreme than in the deserts, but it still experiences very hot summers and moderate winters.

Rivers and Lakes

The Nile River is Egypt’s most important geographical feature, but the country also has several significant lakes.

Nile River

  • Length: The Nile River is the longest river in the world, stretching approximately 6,650 kilometers (4,130 miles) from its sources in East Africa to its delta in Egypt.
  • Significance: The Nile is essential to Egypt’s agriculture, providing water for irrigation in an otherwise arid country. Its annual floods historically fertilized the land, making it ideal for farming.

Lake Nasser

  • Location: Lake Nasser is an artificial reservoir created by the construction of the Aswan High Dam on the Nile River in the 1960s.
  • Significance: It is one of the world’s largest man-made lakes, providing water storage for irrigation and generating hydroelectric power.

Other Lakes

  • Lake Manzala: A large brackish lagoon in the Nile Delta, known for its fishery.
  • Lake Qarun: Located in the Fayoum depression, this ancient lake is one of Egypt’s largest natural bodies of water.

History

Ancient Egypt

Ancient Egypt is one of the earliest and most influential civilizations in human history, known for its monumental architecture, art, and advances in science, medicine, and governance.

Early Dynastic Period (c. 3100 BCE – 2686 BCE)

  • Unification of Upper and Lower Egypt: Around 3100 BCE, King Narmer (also known as Menes) unified Upper and Lower Egypt, establishing the first centralized state and beginning the Early Dynastic Period.
  • Formation of Hieroglyphics: This period saw the development of the first Egyptian writing system, hieroglyphics, which played a crucial role in recording history, administration, and religious texts.

Old Kingdom (c. 2686 BCE – 2181 BCE)

  • Pyramids of Giza: The Old Kingdom is best known for the construction of the Great Pyramids of Giza, including the Pyramid of Khufu (Cheops), one of the Seven Wonders of the Ancient World.
  • Pharaoh’s Absolute Power: During this period, the Pharaoh was considered both a political and religious leader, believed to be a living god on Earth.

Middle Kingdom (c. 2055 BCE – 1650 BCE)

  • Cultural Renaissance: The Middle Kingdom was a time of reunification and cultural flourishing, with advancements in literature, arts, and architecture.
  • Expansion and Trade: Egypt expanded its borders and increased trade with neighboring regions, including Nubia and the Near East.

New Kingdom (c. 1550 BCE – 1077 BCE)

  • Height of Power: The New Kingdom was Egypt’s most prosperous period, during which pharaohs like Thutmose III, Akhenaten, and Ramses II led military campaigns and built monumental temples.
  • Tutankhamun: This period is also famous for the tomb of the young pharaoh Tutankhamun, discovered largely intact in 1922, offering invaluable insight into ancient Egyptian life.

Decline and Foreign Rule

After the New Kingdom, Egypt entered a long period of decline, with invasions by foreign powers such as the Assyrians, Persians, and eventually the Greeks under Alexander the Great.

Greco-Roman Egypt

Egypt came under Greek control after Alexander the Great’s conquest in 332 BCE, marking the beginning of the Ptolemaic Dynasty, which ruled for nearly 300 years.

Ptolemaic Dynasty (305 BCE – 30 BCE)

  • Cleopatra VII: The last ruler of the Ptolemaic Dynasty, Cleopatra VII, is one of the most famous figures in ancient history. Her relationships with Julius Caesar and Mark Antony, and her eventual defeat by Octavian (later Augustus), marked the end of Egyptian independence.
  • Integration with Roman Empire: After Cleopatra’s death in 30 BCE, Egypt became a province of the Roman Empire, providing grain and other resources to support the empire.

Islamic Egypt

Islam arrived in Egypt in 641 CE when Arab forces led by Amr ibn al-As conquered the region, introducing the Islamic faith and Arab culture.

Fatimid Caliphate (969 CE – 1171 CE)

  • Founding of Cairo: The Fatimid Caliphate, a Shia Islamic dynasty, established Cairo as their capital in 969 CE, and it quickly grew into a major cultural, intellectual, and trade center.
  • Al-Azhar University: The Fatimids founded Al-Azhar Mosque and University, which remains one of the most important centers of Islamic learning in the world today.

Mamluk Sultanate (1250 CE – 1517 CE)

  • Military Elite: The Mamluks, originally slave soldiers, seized power in Egypt and ruled for over 250 years. They successfully defended Egypt from Mongol invasions and built many mosques, schools, and palaces in Cairo.

Ottoman Rule (1517 CE – 1798 CE)

In 1517, the Ottoman Empire took control of Egypt, and it remained an Ottoman province for centuries, though it maintained a degree of autonomy.

Napoleon’s Invasion (1798 CE)

In 1798, Napoleon Bonaparte invaded Egypt, marking the beginning of modern European involvement in Egyptian affairs. Although the French occupation was short-lived, it sparked greater Western interest in Egypt, particularly its ancient history.

Modern Egypt

The modern history of Egypt has been shaped by its efforts to gain independence from colonial powers and establish itself as a leading country in the Arab world.

Muhammad Ali Dynasty (1805 – 1952)

  • Modernization: Muhammad Ali Pasha, often considered the founder of modern Egypt, ruled as an Ottoman governor but acted as an independent leader. He modernized Egypt’s military, economy, and infrastructure.
  • Suez Canal: The construction of the Suez Canal (1859–1869) by the French engineer Ferdinand de Lesseps linked the Mediterranean and Red Seas, making Egypt a vital international shipping route.

British Occupation (1882 – 1952)

Although Egypt remained nominally part of the Ottoman Empire, Britain occupied the country in 1882 to secure control of the Suez Canal. Egypt gained partial independence in 1922 but remained under British influence until 1952.

Republic of Egypt

In 1952, the Egyptian monarchy was overthrown in a revolution led by the Free Officers Movement, and Egypt was declared a republic.

Gamal Abdel Nasser (1956 – 1970)

  • Pan-Arabism: Nasser became the leader of Egypt and promoted Pan-Arabism, seeking unity among Arab countries. He nationalized the Suez Canal in 1956, leading to the Suez Crisis.
  • Aswan High Dam: Nasser’s government oversaw the construction of the Aswan High Dam, which transformed Egypt’s agriculture and energy production.

Anwar Sadat (1970 – 1981)

  • Peace with Israel: Sadat’s presidency is remembered for the 1979 Egypt-Israel Peace Treaty, which made Egypt the first Arab country to recognize Israel. This decision earned him the Nobel Peace Prize but also led to his assassination by extremists in 1981.

Hosni Mubarak (1981 – 2011)

  • Long Presidency: Mubarak ruled Egypt for nearly 30 years, maintaining stability but facing criticism for authoritarianism, corruption, and lack of political reform. His regime was overthrown in 2011 during the Arab Spring.

Post-Arab Spring (2011 – Present)

  • Democratic Experiment and Instability: After Mubarak’s ousting, Egypt experienced a brief period of democratic governance under President Mohamed Morsi of the Muslim Brotherhood. However, in 2013, a military coup led by General Abdel Fattah el-Sisi removed Morsi from power.
  • Abdel Fattah el-Sisi’s Presidency: El-Sisi became president in 2014, and his administration has focused on economic reforms, infrastructure development, and maintaining security, though it has been criticized for human rights abuses and suppressing political opposition.

Government and Politics

Political System

Egypt is a republic with a semi-presidential system of government. The country’s political system has undergone significant changes since the Arab Spring, with a strong emphasis on centralization of power in the executive branch under President Abdel Fattah el-Sisi.

Executive Branch

  • President: The President of Egypt is both the head of state and the commander-in-chief of the armed forces. The President has significant executive powers, including appointing the Prime Minister, leading foreign policy, and issuing laws by decree. The current president, Abdel Fattah el-Sisi, has been in power since 2014.
  • Prime Minister: The Prime Minister is appointed by the President and is responsible for the day-to-day administration of the government. However, the Prime Minister’s powers are limited compared to those of the President.

Legislative Branch

Egypt has a bicameral legislature, consisting of the House of Representatives and the Senate:

  • House of Representatives: The lower house of Parliament, made up of 596 members elected for five-year terms. It has the authority to propose and approve laws, review government policies, and monitor executive actions.
  • Senate: The upper house, which serves in an advisory role. It has 300 members, some of whom are appointed by the President.

Judicial Branch

The Egyptian judicial system operates independently of the executive and legislative branches, with the highest court being the Supreme Constitutional Court, responsible for interpreting the constitution and ruling on the constitutionality of laws.

Political Parties

Since the 2013 coup and subsequent political changes, Egypt has seen the rise of pro-government parties and the suppression of opposition movements.

Pro-Government Parties

  • Nation’s Future Party: The Nation’s Future Party has become the dominant political force in Egypt, strongly supporting President el-Sisi and his policies. It holds a significant majority in the House of Representatives.

Opposition Movements

  • Muslim Brotherhood: The Muslim Brotherhood, an Islamist movement, was a powerful political force during and after the 2011 revolution but was outlawed following the 2013 coup. The organization is now considered a terrorist group by the Egyptian government.
  • Secular Opposition: Secular and liberal opposition parties exist, but they face significant restrictions and challenges in the current political climate.

Foreign Relations

Egypt plays a key role in Middle Eastern and African geopolitics, balancing relationships with both regional and global powers.

Key Alliances

  • United States: Egypt has maintained strong ties with the United States since the 1970s, receiving substantial military and economic aid in exchange for its role in maintaining stability in the Middle East and upholding the peace treaty with Israel.
  • Gulf States: Egypt has developed close relations with Saudi Arabia and the United Arab Emirates, which have provided financial support to Egypt’s government, particularly after the 2013 coup.
  • Israel: Egypt and Israel have maintained a cold peace since the signing of the Camp David Accords in 1979. The two countries cooperate on security matters, particularly regarding counterterrorism in the Sinai Peninsula.

Regional Leadership

As the most populous Arab nation, Egypt is often considered a leader in the Arab world. It is a founding member of the Arab League and plays a crucial role in mediating conflicts in the region, including the Israeli-Palestinian conflict.

Economy

Overview

Egypt has a mixed economy with diverse sectors including agriculture, industry, tourism, and services. Despite its economic potential, Egypt faces significant challenges such as poverty, unemployment, and economic inequality. In recent years, the government has implemented economic reforms aimed at improving growth and attracting foreign investment.

Gross Domestic Product (GDP)

As of 2023, Egypt’s GDP is approximately $404 billion USD, making it one of the largest economies in Africa. The country’s economy is heavily reliant on natural resources, tourism, and remittances from Egyptians working abroad.

Key Industries

Agriculture

Agriculture has traditionally been the backbone of Egypt’s economy, although it has declined in relative importance in recent decades. The fertile lands of the Nile Valley and Delta remain crucial for food production.

  • Crops: Egypt is a major producer of wheat, rice, cotton, sugarcane, and fruits and vegetables. The country is also known for its long-staple cotton, which is highly prized for its quality.
  • Challenges: Water scarcity due to population growth and climate change poses a significant challenge to Egypt’s agricultural sector.

Tourism

Tourism is a vital industry for Egypt, attracting millions of visitors each year to its ancient monuments, natural attractions, and vibrant cities.

  • Cultural Tourism: Egypt’s ancient heritage, including the Pyramids of Giza, the temples of Luxor and Karnak, and the Valley of the Kings, makes it one of the world’s top cultural tourism destinations.
  • Beach Resorts: The Red Sea coast, particularly the resorts of Sharm El-Sheikh and Hurghada, is known for its coral reefs, scuba diving, and luxury hotels.
  • Challenges: The tourism industry has been heavily impacted by political instability, terrorism concerns, and the COVID-19 pandemic, but it has shown signs of recovery.

Energy and Natural Resources

Egypt is rich in natural resources, particularly natural gas and petroleum, which are central to the country’s economy.

  • Oil and Gas: Egypt is a significant producer of natural gas and petroleum, with major fields located in the Mediterranean and the Western Desert. The country also exports liquefied natural gas (LNG).
  • Renewable Energy: Egypt is investing in renewable energy, particularly solar and wind power, to meet growing energy demands and reduce reliance on fossil fuels.

Manufacturing

Egypt’s manufacturing sector is diverse, producing everything from textiles and chemicals to electronics and automobiles.

  • Textiles: The textile industry has long been a major part of Egypt’s economy, particularly the production of cotton garments.
  • Automotive: Egypt’s automotive industry has grown in recent years, with several multinational car manufacturers operating in the country.

Trade and Exports

Egypt’s economy is highly dependent on international trade, with key exports including petroleum, natural gas, textiles, and agricultural products.

  • Key Trading Partners: Egypt’s main trading partners are the European Union, China, the United States, and Arab countries.
  • Suez Canal: The Suez Canal is one of Egypt’s most important assets, generating significant revenue through tolls. The canal is a vital global shipping route, connecting the Mediterranean and Red Seas and providing the shortest sea link between Europe and Asia.

Economic Reforms and Challenges

Since 2016, Egypt has undertaken significant economic reforms as part of an agreement with the International Monetary Fund (IMF) to stabilize the economy and reduce public debt.

Economic Reforms

  • Currency Devaluation: In 2016, Egypt allowed its currency, the Egyptian pound, to float freely, which led to a significant devaluation but helped to improve competitiveness.
  • Subsidy Cuts: The government has gradually reduced subsidies on fuel, electricity, and other essentials, which has led to higher living costs but reduced the budget deficit.
  • Infrastructure Development: Major infrastructure projects, such as the expansion of the Suez Canal, new cities, and road networks, have been key components of Egypt’s economic strategy.

Challenges

  • Unemployment: High unemployment, particularly among young people, remains a significant challenge for Egypt’s economy.
  • Poverty: Despite economic growth, poverty remains widespread, with a significant proportion of the population living below the poverty line.
  • Debt: Egypt’s public debt levels are high, which has led to concerns about fiscal sustainability.

Culture

Language

  • Official Language: Arabic is the official language of Egypt, and Egyptian Arabic (Masri) is the most widely spoken dialect.
  • Other Languages: In addition to Arabic, English and French are commonly spoken in business and diplomatic circles. Coptic, the liturgical language of Egypt’s Coptic Christian community, is also used in religious contexts.

Religion

Religion plays a central role in Egyptian society, with Islam being the dominant faith.

Major Religions

  • Islam: Approximately 90% of Egyptians are Muslim, with Sunni Islam being the predominant sect. Islamic traditions and festivals, such as Ramadan and Eid, are integral to Egyptian life.
  • Christianity: Around 10% of the population are Christians, most of whom belong to the Coptic Orthodox Church. Egypt is home to one of the oldest Christian communities in the world.

Religious Institutions

  • Al-Azhar: Al-Azhar University and Mosque in Cairo is one of the oldest and most prestigious centers of Islamic learning in the world.

Music and Dance

Egypt is known for its rich musical heritage and traditional dance forms, which have influenced Arab culture for centuries.

Traditional Music

  • Umm Kulthum: Known as the “Star of the East,” Umm Kulthum is one of the most iconic and influential singers in Arab music. Her songs remain popular across the Arab world.
  • Folk Music: Egypt has a variety of regional folk music traditions, with instruments like the oud, qanun, and tabla playing central roles in performances.

Dance

  • Belly Dancing: Also known as Raqs Sharqi, belly dancing is a traditional Egyptian dance form that has gained international recognition.
  • Folkloric Dance: Folkloric dance troupes perform traditional dances that reflect Egypt’s regional diversity, often featuring costumes and props unique to different parts of the country.

Festivals and Holidays

Egyptians celebrate a mix of religious, national, and cultural festivals throughout the year.

Ramadan and Eid

  • Ramadan: The Islamic holy month of Ramadan is observed by fasting during the day and gathering for meals with family and friends at night. The month concludes with Eid al-Fitr, a major holiday celebrating the end of fasting.
  • Eid al-Adha: Another important Islamic holiday, Eid al-Adha commemorates the willingness of Ibrahim (Abraham) to sacrifice his son in obedience to God.

National Holidays

  • Revolution Day: Celebrated on July 23, Revolution Day marks the anniversary of the 1952 Egyptian Revolution that overthrew the monarchy and established the republic.
  • Sinai Liberation Day: On April 25, Egypt commemorates the final withdrawal of Israeli forces from the Sinai Peninsula in 1982.

Cultural Festivals

  • Cairo International Film Festival: Egypt’s premier film festival, held annually in Cairo, showcases films from around the world and highlights Egyptian cinema.
  • Luxor African Film Festival: This festival celebrates African cinema and is held in the historic city of Luxor, famous for its ancient temples and monuments.

Cuisine

Egyptian cuisine is a reflection of its rich history and diverse cultural influences. It is based on simple, flavorful ingredients such as legumes, rice, and vegetables, with a strong emphasis on bread and spices.

Popular Dishes

  • Koshari: Considered the national dish of Egypt, koshari is a hearty, vegetarian meal made of rice, lentils, pasta, and chickpeas, topped with a spicy tomato sauce and fried onions.
  • Ful Medames: A traditional Egyptian breakfast made of fava beans, olive oil, lemon juice, and spices, often served with bread.
  • Ta’ameya: Egypt’s version of falafel, made from ground fava beans rather than chickpeas, served with tahini or hummus.
  • Molokhia: A leafy green vegetable dish often cooked with garlic and coriander and served with rice or bread, typically accompanied by chicken or rabbit.

Sweets and Desserts

  • Basbousa: A semolina cake soaked in syrup, often flavored with coconut or almonds.
  • Kunafa: A sweet pastry made of thin noodle-like dough soaked in sugar syrup and typically filled with nuts or cream.
  • Baklava: A layered pastry filled with nuts and sweetened with honey or syrup, popular across the Middle East and Mediterranean regions.

Sports

Soccer (Football)

Soccer is the most popular sport in Egypt, with a passionate fan base and a rich history in both domestic and international competitions.

National Team

  • FIFA World Cup: Egypt has qualified for the FIFA World Cup multiple times, most recently in 2018. The national team is known as “The Pharaohs.”
  • Africa Cup of Nations: Egypt is the most successful team in the Africa Cup of Nations, having won the tournament seven times.

Domestic Leagues

  • Al Ahly and Zamalek: The two most popular and successful soccer clubs in Egypt are Al Ahly and Zamalek, based in Cairo. Their rivalry is one of the fiercest in African soccer.

Other Popular Sports

  • Squash: Egypt has produced some of the world’s top squash players, including several world champions such as Ramy Ashour and Nour El Sherbini.
  • Handball: Egypt is a strong competitor in handball, regularly performing well in international tournaments and winning several African championships.

Olympic Success

Egypt has a long history of participation in the Olympic Games, winning medals in various sports, particularly weightlifting, boxing, and wrestling.

  • Notable Achievements: In recent years, Egyptian athletes have excelled in modern pentathlon and taekwondo, winning medals at the Summer Olympics.

Tourism

Major Attractions

Egypt is one of the world’s most famous travel destinations, attracting millions of visitors each year to explore its ancient monuments, natural wonders, and modern cities.

Pyramids of Giza

  • Great Pyramid of Khufu: The largest of the three pyramids at Giza, the Great Pyramid is the last surviving structure of the Seven Wonders of the Ancient World. It is a testament to the engineering and architectural prowess of the ancient Egyptians.
  • Sphinx: The Great Sphinx, a limestone statue with the body of a lion and the head of a pharaoh, stands near the pyramids and has become an iconic symbol of Egypt.

Luxor

  • Karnak and Luxor Temples: Located in the city of Luxor, these ancient temples are among the largest and most impressive in Egypt. Karnak is dedicated to the god Amun, and the nearby Luxor Temple is connected by the Avenue of Sphinxes.
  • Valley of the Kings: This valley on the west bank of the Nile is home to the tombs of many pharaohs, including the famous tomb of Tutankhamun. It is one of the most important archaeological sites in the world.

Abu Simbel

  • Ramses II Temples: Located in southern Egypt near the Sudanese border, the temples of Abu Simbel were carved into a mountainside by Pharaoh Ramses II and are famous for their colossal statues. They were relocated in the 1960s to avoid flooding by Lake Nasser.

Cairo

  • Egyptian Museum: Home to one of the largest collections of ancient Egyptian artifacts, including the treasures of King Tutankhamun, the Egyptian Museum is a must-visit for anyone interested in ancient history.
  • Islamic Cairo: The historic center of Cairo features many beautiful mosques, madrasas, and palaces, including the Citadel and the Mosque of Muhammad Ali.

Red Sea Resorts

  • Sharm El-Sheikh: This resort city on the Sinai Peninsula is known for its beautiful beaches, coral reefs, and luxury hotels, making it a popular destination for scuba diving and snorkeling.
  • Hurghada: Located on the mainland Red Sea coast, Hurghada offers a mix of resorts, nightlife, and access to stunning underwater ecosystems.

Ecotourism

Egypt’s diverse ecosystems, including deserts, mountains, and coastal areas, offer opportunities for ecotourism and adventure travel.

  • Siwa Oasis: Located in the Western Desert near the Libyan border, Siwa Oasis is known for its natural springs, salt lakes, and ancient ruins, as well as its traditional Berber culture.
  • Ras Mohammed National Park: Situated at the southern tip of the Sinai Peninsula, this national park is famous for its coral reefs, marine life, and opportunities for diving and snorkeling.

Tourism Industry

The tourism industry is a vital part of Egypt’s economy, contributing significantly to GDP and providing jobs for millions of people. However, the sector has faced challenges due to political instability and global events like the COVID-19 pandemic.

Revitalization Efforts

The Egyptian government has invested heavily in tourism infrastructure, including new museums, improved airports, and promotional campaigns aimed at attracting visitors from around the world.

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